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Nature of God in Hinduism?

Many Hindus are confused about whether Hinduism is polytheistic, monotheistic, or something else entirely. Some call it monistic, others henotheistic, while others say it's monotheistic.

The Framework for Understanding

First of all, we need to understand that in Hinduism the term āstika/nāstika has a different connotation than the terms atheist/theist. An atheist is popularly defined as one who does not believe in God, while a theist is one who does.

But nāstika doesn't mean someone who doesn't believe in God; it means someone who doesn't accept the Vedas as śabda-pramāṇa, and āstika are those who do.

Categories of Belief in Hinduism

Therefore, in Hinduism people can be categorized differently according to their belief in the Vedas and God:

• Believe in a supreme being and the Vedas – Vedānta, Nyāya
• Believe in a supreme being but not the Vedas – (unknown)
• Believe in the Vedas but not in a supreme being – Pūrva-Mīmāṃsā, Sāṅkhya
• Believe in neither the Vedas nor a supreme being – Cārvākas

So, when it comes to the nature of God/the supreme being, we are not talking about every Hindu, but those who believe in a supreme being (categories 1 & 2). Since most of the prominent understanding of the supreme being comes from the Vedas or their derivative texts like the Purāṇas, we are going to discuss it according to the perspective of the first category.

The Central Question

So, what is the nature of the supreme being in Hinduism?

Before we answer that question, let's first ask ourselves – How would we know what is the nature of God in Hinduism?

Consider these apparent contradictions:

a. There are so many devatas – does that mean it is polytheistic?

b. But then it is also said in multiple places that there is only one supreme reality – does that mean it is monotheistic?

Or is it something else? Is it a combination?

Our Methodological Framework

So the first question is: how are we going to know what is the nature of God? For that, we have to create an inclusive framework that can help us get perspectives from different angles, so that our conclusion has higher accuracy.

We will examine:

1. What does Śruti (Upaniṣads, Vedas) say about the ultimate?
2. What does Smṛti (Gītā, Purāṇas, Itihāsas) say about the supreme being?
3. How do Āchāryas & saints systematize this?

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1. What Does Śruti Say About the Supreme Being?

The most original form of Sanskrit is found in the Ṛgveda, which is believed to be the most ancient by researchers because of its linguistic style. In the Ṛgveda there are multiple devatās (Agni, Vāyu, Indra, etc.) who are praised repeatedly, especially Indra and Agni.

The Apparent Polytheistic Nature

The basis for this view is that the hymns of the Ṛgveda speak of numerous deities (devatās) with diverse characteristics. Each deity is described as having individuality and a distinct status. Later Vedic systematization organized these deities numerically - though the exact count varies across texts, with some traditions referencing 33 primary devas and others extending to thousands through various classifications.

The Traditional Classification

In the Ṛk Saṃhitā, the deities are traditionally divided into three groups:

1. Those who dwell in the heavens (dyuloka)
2. Those whose abode is the mid-region (antarikṣa)
3. Those who reside on earth (pṛthivī)

Their total number in this primary classification is counted as 33, eleven in each region.

Statistical Overview of Ṛgvedic Hymns

The Ṛgveda is composed of about 1,000 hymns addressed to various deities:

• 250 hymns dedicated to Indra
• 200 hymns to Agni
• 123 hymns to Soma
• And so on...

for ex:-

He (Indra) who is Lord of all the world that moves and breathes...(R.V 1.101.5)

In every figure he hath been the mode: this is his only form for us to look on. Indra assumes many form by his Maya, for his Bay Steeds are yoked, ten times a hundred.

Indra tells Pratardana to “Know me alone” (mām eva vijānīhi).

“Hero of Heroes, Agni! Thou art Indra, thou art Viṣṇu of the Mighty Stride, adorable: Thou, Brahmaṇaspati, the Brahman finding wealth: thou, O Sustainer, with thy wisdom tendest us” (RigVeda 2.1.3)

He (surya), the soul of all that moves and moves not (R.V 1.115.1)

Some dedications are to paired deities, such as Indra–Agni, Mitra–Varuṇa, Soma–Rudra, etc. The Viśvedevas (all gods and goddesses together) have been invoked 70 times.

The Revolutionary Statement

Looking at this part, it seems that Vedic dharma is polytheistic in its nature. But here's the twist: the same Ṛgveda makes the statement –

"They call Him Indra, Mitra, Varuṇa, Agni; also the celestial Garutmān.
The Reality (Sat) is One; the wise call It by many names."
— Ṛgveda 1.164.46

Now this statement makes it absolutely clear that the underlying Reality (Sat - pure existence/being) is one, while the wise call It by many names (Indra, Agni, etc.).

Thus, the same Veda which praises many devas is actually monotheistic of a different kind.

This statement is then supported by various other statements in the Vedas:

"Hiraṇyagarbha was present at the beginning; when born, he was the sole lord of created beings; he upheld this earth and heaven — let us offer worship with an oblation to the divine Ka."
— Ṛgveda 10.121.1

"He who by his might beheld the waters all around, containing the creative power and giving birth to sacrifice,he who among the gods was the one supreme god — let us offer worship with an oblation to the divine Ka."
— Ṛgveda 10.121.8

In fact, the whole Ṛgveda 10.121 section addresses the supreme god with the name Hiraṇyagarbha, repeatedly asking "Who is the deity?" (Ka).

The Nārāyaṇa Sūkta Declaration

The Nārāyaṇa Sūkta (or Nārāyaṇa Sūktam), featured in the 13th anuvāka (section) of the 10th prapāṭhaka (chapter) of the Taittirīya Āraṇyaka, which is part of the Kṛṣṇa Yajurveda, also declares:

"Whatever all this universe is,
seen or heard of — pervading all this,
from inside and outside alike,
stands supreme the Eternal Divine Being (Nārāyaṇa)."

The first verse of the Nārāyaṇa Sūkta mentions the words paramam padam, which literally means "highest position," commonly understood as the "supreme abode for all souls." This status is given to the transcendent aspect of divinity in the Vedas.

Confirmation from the Upaniṣads

These very facts are also confirmed by the Upaniṣads:

In the Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad (3.9.1-9), in the dialogue between Śākalya and Yājñavalkya, in reply to a question addressed to the latter regarding the number of gods, the systematic count is progressively reduced: from thousands to 33, then to 6, later to 3, then to 2, further to one and a half (referring to prāṇa as the vital principle), and finally to one ultimate reality.

Chāndogya Upaniṣad 6.2.1:

"In the beginning, my dear, this [universe] was Being alone, one only, without a second (ekam eva advitīyam)."

Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad 6.11:

"He is the one God, hidden in all beings, all-pervading, the inner Self of all beings, the overseer of deeds,
the dweller in all beings, the witness, the knower, the only one without a second."

There are ample evidences in Śruti that denies polytheism.

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2. What Does Smṛti Say About the Nature of the Supreme Consciousness?

Different Purāṇas present different deities as supreme —

1. Śiva in the Śiva Purāṇa,
2. Viṣṇu in the Viṣṇu Purāṇa,
3. Devī in the Devī Purāṇa etc.

So, does this mean that Smṛti which is also one of the important texts in Hinduism presents polytheism - Yes, if don't have a complete understanding.

although each texts mentions different devas as supreme yet each tradition ultimately points toward the same non-dual reality, expressed through their particular theological lens. The concept of pure polytheism is rarely, if ever, explicitly stated in these texts.

There is a very popular verse regarding the nature of absolute which is given by Srimad Bhagavatam.

vadanti tat tattva-vidas
tattvaṁ yaj jñānam advayam
brahmeti paramātmeti
bhagavān iti śabdyate

"The knowers of absolute truth describe it as non-dual consciousness, naming it as Brahman, as Paramātman, and as Bhagavān."

This is similar to the Ṛgvedic phrase, "Truth is one but the knowers call it by many names".

Evidence from the Bhagavad Gītā

Bhagavad Gītā

"I am the source of everything; from Me everything proceeds." (10.8)

"I am the object of knowledge, the purifier, the syllable Om, and the Ṛg, Sāma, and Yajur Vedas." (9.17-18)

"There is nothing whatsoever higher than Me, O Arjuna. All this is strung on Me as pearls are strung on a thread." (7.7)

Mahābhārata

"Nārāyaṇa is the supreme goal, the supreme refuge, the supreme Brahman. (Śānti Parva 349.64)"

"There is one God, Nārāyaṇa, who is the Lord of the universe, the protector of the worlds. (Anuśāsana Parva 14.163)"

There are ample references in Smṛti where the supreme reality is characterized as one.

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3. The Āchāryas and Commentators

Ancient Vedic Commentators

The ancient Vedic commentators, Yāska and Śaunaka, adopted this explanation. According to Yāska, only one Supreme Being is praised differently, and all other deities are its various aspects.

Śaunaka, the author of the Bṛhaddevatā, states:

"There is but one deity. This deity has great powers, and by its special powers it can assume many diverse forms. Hence the primary Reality, which is the single Ātman of the universe, is described and praised under different names. Those who are described separately are part of this one Paramātman."

Sāyaṇa, the well-known commentator on the Vedas, also maintains the view that one Paramātman is praised through the different deities.

The Great Ācāryas

Then there are sages who have established well-known sampradāyas — more popular among them are:

• Śrīpāda Ādi Śaṅkarācārya
• Śrīpāda Rāmānujācārya
• Śrīpāda Madhvācārya
• Śrīpāda Nimbārkācārya
• Śrīla Jīva Goswāmī

And many others. All, while interpreting the texts, concluded that reality is non-dual (although they explained it differently).

Adding Flavors to Monotheism

Till now, it appears that Hinduism is one special kind of monotheism which incorporates polytheism.

But here's a twist - Classical monotheism (as understood in Christianity and Islam) typically refers to one God who is a distinct, personal being with attributes, will, and individual consciousness separate from creation. Hinduism's unique contribution is that the ultimate reality (Brahman/Paramātman) isn't always considered purely personal. The tradition recognizes both:

Saguṇa Brahman - Brahman with qualities/attributes (personal aspect) Nirguṇa Brahman - Brahman without qualities/attributes (impersonal aspect)

Three Perspectives on the Absolute Truth:

1. The Absolute Truth is Impersonal
2. The Absolute Truth is Personal
3. The Absolute Truth is Both Personal & Impersonal Simultaneously and inconceivably one and different. Personal aspect doesn't negate the impersonal, and vice versa.

Therefore, even if we call Hinduism "monotheistic," it's not monotheistic in the conventional sense understood in Abrahamic traditions. Hindu "monotheism" is far more nuanced, incorporating both theistic and non-theistic elements within the same framework.

The Panentheistic Appearance

At first glance, Hinduism may seem panentheistic—the view that the universe exists within God, while God also transcends it. This impression arises from several Hindu concepts:

• The universe as God's body (śarīra)
• All beings existing within the divine
• God being both immanent and transcendent

Supporting Evidence for Panentheism:

"The entire universe is pervaded by the Lord. Enjoy through renunciation."
— Īśāvāsya Upaniṣad 1

"All this is Puruṣa, whatever has been and whatever is to be."
— Puruṣa Sūkta (Ṛgveda 10.90.2)

"All beings exist in Me, but I am not contained in them."
— Bhagavad Gītā 9.4

However, Hindu theology introduces nuances that go beyond traditional panentheism - because the same texts says:

Viṣṇu Purāṇa 1.4.39:
"He is not the universe, though the universe is in Him."

Bhagavad Gītā 9.5:
"Yet everything that is created does not rest in Me. Behold My mystic opulence! Although I am the maintainer of all living entities and although I am everywhere, I am not a part of this cosmic manifestation, for My Self is the very source of creation."

Traditional panentheism suggests a straightforward container-contained relationship. Hindu theology, however, adds layers of paradox and complexity.

The Hindu Position

Hinduism presents a unique theological stance:
The universe exists in God; God transcends the universe; God is also the universe, yet simultaneously beyond all these relationships.

Thus, while panentheistic language appears in Hindu texts, the actual theological position is far more nuanced and paradoxical than Western panentheism typically allows.

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Conclusion: The Nature of God in Hinduism

After examining Śruti, Smṛti, and the teachings of the Āchāryas, Hindu theology emerges as a tradition that transcends Western categorical boundaries. Here’s why common categories fall short:

Why Western Categories Fall Short

• Not Purely Polytheistic:
  Hinduism acknowledges many Devatās (Śiva, Viṣṇu, Brahmā, Indra, Agni, etc.), but the Ṛgveda states:

  "Truth is One, the wise call it by many names" (Ṛgveda 1.164.46)
  The Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad reduces divine multiplicity to ultimate unity.

• Not Purely Monotheistic:
  The supreme reality encompasses both Saguṇa (personal, with attributes) and Nirguṇa (impersonal, without attributes) aspects.
  Unlike Abrahamic monotheism, the Hindu "One" is not exclusively personal.

• Not Purely Pantheistic:
  The supreme reality pervades everything (SB 3.26.52), yet the Viṣṇu Purāṇa clarifies:

  "He is not the universe" (Viṣṇu Purāṇa 1.4.39)
  God remains transcendent while being immanent.

• Not Purely Panentheistic:

  "All beings exist in Me" (Bhagavad Gītā 9.4),
  but also, "I am not contained in them."
  The acintya-bhedābheda principle defies simple container-contained logic.

• Not Henotheistic:
  While different traditions worship different supreme forms, the Muṇḍaka Upaniṣad declares:

  "Brahman alone is to be known" (Muṇḍaka Upaniṣad 2.2.5)
  This goes beyond worshiping one while accepting others.

• Not Agnostic:
  The Nāsadīya Sūkta asks "Who can know Him?" suggesting mystery, but the Kena Upaniṣad states:

  "He is known by him who thinks He cannot be known" (Kena Upaniṣad 2.3)
  Knowledge and unknowability coexist.

The Hindu Theological Innovation

Hindu theology is not confused or contradictory; it systematically incorporates apparent opposites:

• Simultaneous Unity and Multiplicity: One truth, many expressions.
• Personal and Impersonal Aspects: The same reality experienced differently.
• Transcendent and Immanent: Beyond yet within everything.
• Knowable and Unknowable: Accessible through grace, beyond intellectual comprehension.

Methodological Insight

Western categories, shaped by specific cultural and philosophical contexts, may be inadequate for understanding Hinduism’s nuanced, paradox-embracing approach to divine reality. Hindu theology doesn’t fail to fit these categories—it transcends them.

Implications

• For Practitioners: Explains how Hindu worship can involve multiple deities while maintaining an ultimate non-dual vision.
• For Scholars: Highlights the need for indigenous categories rather than imposing external frameworks.
• For Interfaith Dialogue: Shows that meaningful conversation requires understanding each tradition’s unique conceptual vocabulary.

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So, what truly is the nature of God in Hinduism?
Having clarified what it is not, the tradition invites us to explore what it positively affirms about ultimate reality—an exploration for the next discussion.

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Glossary

Polytheism — Many gods, each limited and separate.

Monotheism — One personal, supreme God, creator of all.

Pantheism — God and universe are identical.

Panentheism — Universe exists in God, but God is beyond it.

Henotheism — One god worshiped as supreme while accepting others.