Pramana-05

We have already discussed pratyakṣa, anumāna, and śabda, which are the three most important pramāṇas in Hindu epistemology.

Basic Definitions

• Pramāṇa — means of valid knowledge
• Pratyakṣa-pramāṇa — knowledge arising from the contact of senses with their sense objects
• Anumāna-pramāṇa — knowledge that follows consequentially from some other previously established knowledge
• Śabda-pramāṇa — meaningful, articulate sound spoken or written by an āpta-puruṣa (a trustworthy person)

In this blog, we will summarize the remaining seven pramāṇas. These can, in some way, be grouped under the three primary pramāṇas mentioned earlier.

3. Ārṣa

Ārṣa refers to the statements of authoritative sages.

Traditionally, śabda-pramāṇa is divided as:

• Vaidika (apauruṣeya) — impersonal, eternal words of the Veda
• Laukika (pauruṣeya) — words of human beings

Ārṣa-pramāṇa occupies a middle ground — the words of ṛṣis, which, though pauruṣeya (human-authored), are considered pramāṇa because of the ṛṣi’s āptatva (trustworthiness, realization of truth).

Babaji (Commentary on Tattva Sandarbha):

“There are many exceptional sages such as Kapila, Gautama, and Patañjali, who each founded a distinct school of wisdom. Naturally, their philosophical views differ according to the nature of their own direct apprehension (sākṣātkāra) of reality. Therefore, the Mahābhārata says that one is not considered a seer (ṛṣi) if his view is not original and hence different from that of other seers. Since these sages are all profound thinkers, we take their utterances seriously. However, an ordinary person cannot determine which of these is ultimately conclusive.”

Reasons for Differences Among Sages

Various sages have explained tattva differently for several reasons:

1. Differences in the capability or conditioning of the adhikārī (student)

2. Partial apprehension of reality by the ṛṣi

3. Competition may sometimes be necessary to realize an object’s worth

4. To keep asurika (non-divine) people engaged in some practice so that they do not disturb society

5. To provide sāttvika-natured seekers with an opportunity to examine and refute opposing views, thereby deepening their understanding of theology

   • (e.g., Sāṅkhya, Nyāya serve as counterpoints)

For Vedāntins, ārṣa conforming with śabda is acceptable as a valid pramāṇa.

4. Upamāna (Comparison / Analogy)

Upamāna literally means “comparison” or “analogy” — derived from upa + māna (“measuring by proximity or similarity”).

सादृश्यादुपलब्धिर्उपमानम्। (Nyāya-sūtra 1.1.6) “Knowledge arising from similarity with something familiar is upamāna.”

Classic Example

A person who has never seen a gavaya (wild ox) hears someone say:

“A gavaya is like a cow (go-sadṛśaḥ gavayaḥ).”

Later, he goes to the forest, sees an animal resembling a cow, and recalls the verbal description. He then understands:

“This animal, which resembles a cow, must be the gavaya spoken of.”

This cognition (ayam saḥ gavayaḥ) is upamiti (knowledge by similarity). The process of recognizing similarity between the unknown object (gavaya) and the known (go) is upamāna-pramāṇa.

Babaji summarizes:

“Upamāna provides knowledge of the relation between a word, such as gavaya, and the object it corresponds to, on the basis of resemblance.”

5. Arthāpatti (Presumption)

“Postulation of an unseen fact to explain what is otherwise inexplicable is arthāpatti.”

When known facts (prameyas) cannot be explained otherwise, the mind automatically posits a new fact. This posited fact is not a guess — it’s a necessary presumption.

Example: Devadatta and Eating

• Known fact 1: “Devadatta is alive.”
• Known fact 2: “Devadatta never eats during the day.”
• Observation: If he doesn’t eat at all, he couldn’t survive.
• Postulation: Therefore, he must be eating at night.

6. Anupalabdhi (Non-perception)

Anupalabdhi literally means non-perception or non-apprehension.

While other pramāṇas give knowledge of what is, anupalabdhi gives knowledge of what is not.

Babaji:

“Anupalabdhi is non-perception of an object by appropriate, functioning sense organs, which is instrumental in the knowledge of the absence of that object. For example, when one looks for a book on a table and finds it empty, the non-cognition of the book makes one aware of its absence.”

It is classified as a separate category because there is no actual contact between the senses and their objects.

Types of Anupalabdhi

1. Kāraṇa-anupalabdhi — non-perception of the cause  → Non-perception of clay → absence of pot
2. Kārya-anupalabdhi — non-perception of the effect  → Non-perception of smoke → absence of fire
3. Svabhāva-anupalabdhi — non-perception due to nature itself  → Non-existence of a hare’s horn
4. Viruddha-anupalabdhi — non-perception due to contradiction  → Darkness cannot exist in sunlight

7. Sambhava (Inclusion)

Sambhava literally means “inclusion.”

“The cognition that the smaller must necessarily be contained in the larger is Sambhava.”

Wherever there are ten things, five must necessarily be included — this cognition is through Sambhava-pramāṇa.

Examples

• “Where there are ten cows, there are necessarily five cows.”  → Cognition that five are included in ten = Sambhava-jñāna
• “Where there is gold, there are atoms of gold.”  → Knowledge that atoms are included in gold = Sambhava
• “Where there are all letters, there are vowels.”  → Knowledge of inclusion of vowels within all letters

8. Aitihya (Tradition)

Aitihya represents the social memory of a culture — it preserves ancient stories, beliefs, and descriptions that may not have traceable origins but still shape human cognition.

Tradition is the handing down of information, beliefs, and customs by word of mouth or by example from one generation to another, without knowledge of the original source of such facts.

9. Ceṣṭā (Gesture)

Ceṣṭā-pramāṇa means knowledge arising from observing another person’s gestures or bodily movements.

It refers to knowledge of another person’s internal state — such as emotions, intentions, or desires — through their external gestures.

Examples:

• Observing someone trembling or avoiding eye contact → fear
• Seeing someone smiling, jumping, or clapping → happiness or excitement

Babaji:

“A pūjārī may display various mudrās before the deity to convey specific messages.”

Conclusion

Thus, the discussion of all types of pramāṇa ends here. Which school accepts which pramāṇa, and how the remaining seven can be classified under the three primary ones, is discussed in Pramāṇa–01 of this series.

Among all pramāṇas, śabda is the only independent and capable one. Other pramāṇas are prone to error because humans can misperceive, misinfer, or misremember.

JG (in Tattva Sandarbha–Subodhinī):

“Although it is said there are ten pramāṇas—sense perception, inference, testimony, a sage’s testimony, comparison, implication, non-existence, inclusion, history, and gesture—nevertheless the root pramāṇa is scripture alone, whose nature is sentences devoid of the faults of misapprehension, illusion, willful deception, and faulty senses.

1. In regard to pramāṇas other than [scripture], we see erroneous cognitions due to human faults such as misapprehension.
2. Scripture, however, is without this fault.
3. Therefore, the other pramāṇas are controlled by it, like ministers by a king.
4. Scripture, however, is independent.
5. Other pramāṇas only sometimes assist it.
6. But scripture depends only upon itself, for it can invalidate them.
7. Objects established by scripture cannot be contradicted by the others.
8. Scripture alone is the supreme means for knowing objects that other pramāṇas cannot reach by their own power.”

Note: The above section is taken from “When Stone Floats and Mud Speaks” by Babaji.

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Recommended Reading

Here are some key resources to further explore Pramāṇa and Indian epistemology:

• Tattva Sandarbha
  Śrī Satyanarayana Babaji Maharaj
  Read online

These texts provide foundational perspectives and detailed analysis relevant to the topics discussed in this series.

These works offer valuable insights into the foundational concepts discussed in this series.

This series on Pramāṇa aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of Indian epistemology as it forms the foundation for all philosophical inquiry in our tradition.